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the Rings of Fire report shows that in the past 100 years there has been a significant increase in the number of "tropical" nights, when temperatures do not drop below 20C (68F). Between 1924 and 1933, only four tropical nights were observed in Paris. In 2014-2023, the city experienced a total of 84 tropical nights – 21 times more.

Mohan says she has "mixed feelings" about the lack of air conditioning in the village. She says she understands organisers' commitment to sustainability but is worried about the impact heat will have on her health and recovery following the triathlon. "Recovery is very important for athletes," she says. "I want to be safe. I don't want to come back injured and I don't want to not have my best performance on the day."

The organisers of the games have said that Paralympic delegations will be provided with one free air-conditioning unit for every three athletes for medical reasons, as some athletes experience thermoregulation problems.

It's difficult to know exactly how polluted Parisian air was in 1924, when air quality monitoring was in its infancy. There are some records dating back to the early 20th Century, such as measurements of suspended dust from industrial processes or measurements of atmospheric electricity. The Eiffel Tower was an ideal structure for taking these measurements and scientists have used these records to infer smoke pollution levels in the French capital in the 1890s.

But these records are not directly comparable to those made today. The closest equivalent is data on levels of particulates: microscopic particles released by burning fossil fuels and from traffic exhausts.

Exposure to particulate pollution is extremely harmful to health and responsible for the vast majority of air pollution-related deaths.

Heat could be a killer if you aren't able to get your nutrition and hydration right – Pragnya Mohan

Particulate levels in 1920s Paris may well have been about 100 micrograms per cubic metre, estimates Giles Harrison, professor of atmospheric physics at the University of Reading in the UK. This is about five times higher than pollution levels today, BBC analysis reveals.

The main sources of Parisian pollution in 1924 were coal-powered factories and domestic heating as well as motor vehicles, says Harrison.

The 1924 Stade de Colombes Olympic stadium, located in north-west Paris, was surrounded by factories, says Catherine Radtka, a historian of science at the French National Conservatory of Arts and Crafts.

"There were tyre factories, sugar and alcohol refineries and gas plants in the area, emitting fumes, dust and noxious gases," says Radtka. "There were already complaints from farmers at the beginning of the 20th Century…they said the fumes were destroying their crops." Physicians had also started sounding the alarm about the health risks of air pollution, she says.

Iconic landmarks, such as the Notre Dame, were caked in thick, black dust. "Everything was black in Paris because of the smog," says Radtka.

In 2023, by contrast, monthly levels of large particulates (PM10) in the city averaged 19 micrograms per cubic metre of air – a five-fold reduction compared with 1924.

Much of this improvement has occurred relatively recently. In 2003, monthly PM10 levels still averaged 67 micrograms per cubic metre, but air quality improved in the decades since as the city has prioritised cyclists and pedestrians over cars. Levels of the smallest, most dangerous particles, measuring less than 2.5 microns across (known as PM2.5), have fallen by similar proportions since 2003.

"Cars will be very restricted in the centre of Paris during the Olympics," says Safieddine. "I don't think pollution will be a problem unless we have high temperatures. Heatwaves are often associated with pollution events."